Conflict Analysis: The Siachen Glacier Dispute

Also read: The Story of My Family

Here is a modified version of a paper written by me recently for a course on the 'Process of International Negotiations'

Conflict Definition

Siachen Glacier lies at the Northern extremities of Kashmir and its borders with China. Due to extreme climatic and terrain conditions in the Himalayan Mountains, this area was unexplored and not demarcated until recent times. Consequent to the 1971 war between India and Pakistan, the existing Cease Fire Line (CFL) of 1949 was converted to a ‘Line of Control’ through signing of the ‘Simla Agreement' between India and Pakistan; however, it was demarcated only up to NJ 9842, a boundary pillar beyond which the terrain was considered too harsh to be of any relevance at the time. Both sides agreed on the Line of Control upto NJ 9842, and “thence north to the glaciers.” Since the line is not specified beyond NJ 9842, both countries have interpreted it differently.

SIACHEN GLACIER SHOWING THE PHYSICAL TERRAIN, OVERLAPPING BOUNDARY CLAIMS,
AND DE FACTO BORDERS OF INDIA, PAKISTAN AND CHINA

                                              
                                                        

Pakistan draws a straight line in a northeasterly direction from NJ 9842 up to the Karakoram pass on its boundary with China. India instead draws a north-northwest line from NJ 9842 along the watershed line of the Saltoro range, a southern offshoot of the Karakoram range.

The present conflict has its genesis in Pakistan allowing mountaineering expeditions into the area in the 1970s and 80s. India felt this to be a form of ‘Cartographic Aggression’. To stake its claim over the territory, India launched a military operation in April 1984 to occupy the western ridges of the Siachen Glacier valley. In response, Pakistan launched a number of repeated offensives on Indian positions of the ridgeline. Both both armies continue to be deployed facing each other at heights of 4,000 to 6,000 meters above sea level. Both sides have suffered a large number of casualties among their soldiers, more so on the Indian side due to their positions being higher in altitude and on more difficult terrain.

The territorial situation as it presently stands is that Pakistan considers the Siachen Glacier Complex to be at the eastern extremity of Baltistan—a Northern Area that is unambiguously under its control. India, by contrast, maintains that the Siachen Glacier is the western boundary of the Nubra Sub-Division of the Ladakh District of Jammu and Kashmir—a territory which has been part of India's administrative jurisdiction since the accession of that state to the Union of India in 1947.

Significant Parties To The Conflict

The main parties to the conflict (who are or may be “at the negotiation table”);
a. India
b. Pakistan

Major factions or players within each party;

India

a. Government of India.

b. Indian Army. Though Indian army is a stakeholder in the conflict, it is under control of the Govt of India and may have a minor role to play in the negotiations.

Pakistan
a. Government of Pakistan.

b. Pakistan Army. Within Pakistan, the army is an extra constitutional authority and has a say in political and diplomatic issues. Strategic interests of Pakistan are controlled by the army and it has the ability to disrupt negotiations.

China is an additional party with a stake in the conflict. It is affected due to its 1963 agreement with Pakistan where territories that previously belonged to Kashmir were exchanged. It can be a potential spoiler because of the influence it has over Pakistan. 

Third parties who may be attempting to facilitate resolution of the conflict are:

a. United Nations. It has limited influence over the conflict since it has not been able to enforce its resolution of 1949 with either party.

b. United States. Though the US has attempted to mediate a peace and withdrawal of both forces, it has not been successful, and both India as well as Pakistan have criticized the role US attempted to play.

c. Track II negotiators from India and Pakistan. A recent development where track II negotiators from both countries attempted to find a neutral solution to the problem.

Perspectives Of The Parties

Issues in the conflict

India

a. Mutual distrust between India and Pakistan has risen to new heights after the nuclear test of May, 1998. Both India and Pakistan face what the superpowers have faced since the early fifties: the risk of a conventional conflict escalating to a nuclear one.

b. Consequent to the 1949 cease fire with Pakistan and the Line of Control being established between the two countries, India is sensitive to further loss of what it considers its own territory. The perceived loss of areas to the North of NJ 9842, though not defined at the beginning of the conflict as Indian territory are nevertheless considered Indian. On the contrary, Pakistan stakes a claim to this area because it was undefined even after the wars of 1947 and 1971.

c. Interpretation of the Cease Fire Line (CFL) consequent to the 1949 war and the Line of Control after the 1971 war with Pakistan.

d. Admission of international mountaineering expeditions into the area by Pakistan is considered an act of covert extension of territorial claims. India regarded Pakistani encouragement of mountaineers into the non-demarcated area as a calculated ploy to gain control of Siachen.

e. Pakistan’s claim to Siachen received support from prestigious international mapping agencies who had endorsed it as being Pakistani territory on their maps. India called this ‘cartographic aggression’ by Pakistan.

Pakistan

a. The geo-strategic nature of Pakistani aims at securing control of the Siachen Glacier complex to secure for themselves a common border with China, with a view to seek reassurance of Chinese support against India in the event of general hostilities.

b. Siachen Glacier area falls under the Pakistan administered sector of the disputed state of Jammu and Kashmir, called Federally Administered Northern Areas and must be restored to its control till an internationally supervised plebiscite is concluded in the state, as decided after the ceasefire agreement of 1949.

c. Based on the interpretation of the Line of Control as described in the 1972 Simla Agreement and its clauses on maintaining status quo, Pakistan considers Indian occupation of the Saltoro range illegal. 

d. Pakistan is willing to bilaterally negotiate with India as it considers Siachen Glacier disputed territory, especially since it falls outside the demarcated Line of Control. It was willing to accept Siachen as a no man’s land, till India unilaterally occupied the Saltoro range.

Positions

India has taken the position that all talks related to Siachen Glacier and other issues concerned with boundary be held under the 1972 Simla Agreement, signed after the 1971 war. Pakistan has in the past, opted for airing the matter in international fora, such as the UN and the Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) and not limit resolution to the bilateral level.

Consequent to Pakistan’s border agreement with China in 1963 and construction of the Karakoram highway, India was concerned that a collusive Pakistan and China could jointly plan to annex Indian held territory in Kashmir. India does not recognize this agreement because it believes that Kashmir has been illegally occupied by Pakistan. 

India’s stand is that delineation of boundaries be carried out along the watershed in accordance with the accepted international watershed principle. India insists that it should extend along the Saltoro ridge-line connecting point NJ 9842 with the Sia La, Sherpa Kangri, and on to K2, merging with the international boundary agreed in the 1963 Sino-Pak Border Agreement. By stating its stand based on the watershed principle, India hopes to apply this position to its territorial dispute with China as well. 

India has outlined its six proposals on the Siachen Glacier dispute during multiple talks with Pakistan:

i. A cessation of 'cartographic aggression' by Pakistan (that is, of its unilateral attempts to extend the LOC from its agreed terminus at map reference point NJ 9842 to the Karakoram Pass of the border with China);

ii. Establishment of a demilitarized zone (DMZ) at the Siachen Glacier;

iii. Exchange between India and Pakistan of authenticated maps showing present military dispositions on the ground;

iv. Delimitation by India and Pakistan of a line from map reference point NJ 9842 northwards to the border with China 'based on ground realities' [AGPL];

v. Formulation of ground rules to govern future military operations in the area;

vi. Redeployment of Indian and Pakistani forces to mutually agreed positions.

Though Pakistan supports Kashmiri self-determination through a UN-sponsored plebiscite, it has effectively annexed the Northern Areas, which are contiguous to the Siachen Glacier. It now considers these areas disputed territories that India does not have a right to occupy. The Pakistani team, led by Foreign Secretary Syed Ijlai Zaidi, claimed during the first round of talks in 1986 that India's induction of its forces on the Glacier was a violation of the Simla Agreement. Pakistan's formal terms have been twofold during many rounds of talks with India:

i. Deployment of Indian and Pakistani forces to mutually agreed positions held at the time the ceasefire was declared in 1971.

ii. Delimitation of an extension of the LOC beyond map reference point NJ 9842.

Interests

India considers Jammu and Kashmir to be an integral part of the country by the accession instrument, and Pakistan as an aggressor. Pakistan disregards the accession of Jammu and Kashmir to India, which it considers to be fraudulent and inappropriate to an area dominated by a majority Muslim population “It is not just military confrontations and threats of war that ensue—indeed, the fear and pride related to Kashmir and the subsequent ill will compels both countries to embark upon further programs of hate and adopt new inflammatory dimensions to an already troubled relationship”. Islamabad considers the Siachen Glacier and the Northern Areas absolutely vital to the security of Pakistan- “Indian occupation of the Siachen Glacier would gain desired proximity to the Karakoram Highway—the focus of a joint Soviet/Afghan and Indian pincer movement”.

Under the Sino-Pak border agreement, the government of Pakistan relinquished claims to over 4,000 square kilometers of territory, in return for China’s cession to Pakistan of over 1,300 square kilometers of territory actually administered by China. Pakistan was not the sovereign authority empowered to make a final settlement with China, which is still pending the outcome of the Kashmir question. An Indian withdrawal from Siachen would validate the agreement between Pakistan and China. Gaining control of the Siachen Glacier from the geostrategic viewpoint is critical to allow Pakistan a common border with China, which could be used in the event of hostilities with India to seek Chinese military cooperation and support on ground. 

Pakistan's stated ambition has been to achieve military parity with India. By keeping the Indian army occupied in localized conflicts, it hoped to negate the advantage of superior strength, both quantitatively and qualitatively by India.

Application of the watershed principle to its disputed Himalayan borders with China is critical to Indian strategic interests. Loss of the Siachen Glacier would have placed India in a much weaker position vis-a-vis China regarding negotiations on outstanding border issues along the border with China as it would mean applying different yardsticks for similar boundary issues. 

India does not accept a third party intervention in the conflict and repeatedly asserts that all negotiations and problem solving be carried out under the Simla Agreement of 1972. However, Pakistan wants the issue of Kashmir and Siachen Glacier to be settled through international mediation or intervention, which is in contradiction with the Indian interest in a bilateral settlement.

Alternatives

India is likely to continue to hold its entrenched positions (which are militarily stronger) on the Saltoro range in the absence of a negotiated settlement. The region has seen a ceasefire in effect since 2003, as a result of which combat related casualties no longer occur. Over a period of time, India has advanced its medical support resources deployed in the area and weather and terrain related casualties have dropped. Though the costs in money terms of maintaining the army at such altitudes is prohibitively high, India is capable of continuing to do so. 

India’s main contention is the alignment of the Line of Control beyond NJ 9842 under the present condition, even if the larger Kashmir issue is not resolved. Therefore it is likely to walk away from any negotiation that suggests realigning the AGPL based on Pakistan’s interpretation, as there are issues of public perception about loss of territory which will dominate any negotiated settlement. Overall, India has a very strong Best Alternative To Negotiated Settlement (BATNA) due to its dominant military and economic position. 

Pakistan could continue to hold its positions, as a ceasefire is in effect and its army is in any case subject to lesser casualties due to terrain and weather. This is an attractive BATNA for Pakistan as it does not involve any additional military, political or diplomatic commitments.

One option for Pakistan is to launch an offensive in the Siachen Glacier area to dislodge Indian Army from the Saltoro range. However, this is not a very attractive BATNA as the Indian armed forces are numerically and qualitatively superior and are occupying dominating positions. Pakistan will not be able to support the war economically, in addition to being subject to sanctions from international agencies for being the aggressor.

Pakistan could launch military operations elsewhere to capture Indian held territory and bargain for withdrawal of Indian forces from Siachen Glacier. This was attempted by Pakistan under General Parvez Musharraf in 1999, but India was able to divert its armed forces from elsewhere and evict Pakistani forces. This BATNA has been attempted and was unsuccessful, therefore is no longer a suitable option.

Pakistan and China could jointly launch military operations to capture Siachen. However, in the present international order, a joint war by two countries on India may draw in others and would in any case be viewed as unwarranted aggression, especially by China as it is not a direct party to the conflict. Overall, Pakistan has a set of weak BATNAs that limit the amount of influence that can be applied on India to negotiate a demilitarization of the Glacier. 

Communication And Relationship-Building

Historically, India and Pakistan have a hostile relationship since independence in 1947. Minor skirmishes on territorial issues have led to three full scale wars in 1947, 1965 and 1971. India and Pakistan have had eight rounds of talks on the Siachen issue from 1986 to 1998. However, India’s insistence that the present deployment (the AGPL) be demarcated has been countered by Pakistan with the argument that India must withdraw to pre 1972 positions before any meaningful talks can commence. Pakistan holds the view that when the two armies withdraw their forces from the zone of conflict and agree to refrain from re-establishing any military presence in it, the original positions will become irrelevant.

Both countries successfully disengaged their forces from the Chumik Glacier, which is located quite close to Siachen, through negotiations at the field commander level. This indicates that it is possible to work out negotiated settlement at the local level without prejudice to the remaining issues. On 25 November 2003, Pakistan proposed an informal cease-fire along the LOC including the Siachen conflict zone, and India accepted the proposal.

A composite dialogue process was initiated between India and Pakistan in 2004 to address parallel, but separately eight issues that affect relations between the two countries, Siachen Glacier being one of them. The Siachen issue has been separated from the larger Kashmir issue, creating a hope that it may be resolved independent of the related issues. Pakistan sees agreements in trade and other areas as a springboard for resolution of the Kashmir issue, but India sees trade and other cooperation independent of Kashmir, since it believes that Kashmir is an inalienable part of India.

The joint statement of 12 June 2012 following the India-Pakistan defense secretary level Siachen talks as part of the composite dialogue process said: “Both sides reaffirmed their resolve to make serious, sustained and result oriented efforts for seeking an amicable resolution of Siachen. It was agreed to continue dialogue on Siachen in keeping with the desire of the leaders of both countries for early resolution of all outstanding issues.” However, no progress on ground has taken place beyond these talks.

Criteria Of Legitimacy

Since the Siachen issue is related to demarcation and interpretation of boundary, as well as ownership of territory, the following agreements and UN resolutions may be interpreted to arrive at a resolution:

a. The Simla Agreement of 1972 between India and Pakistan.

b. The UN Commission for India and Pakistan resolution of 13 August 1948.

c. The UN Commission for India and Pakistan resolution of 5 January 1949.

The UN resolution of 13 August 1948 states at Part II A (1) that Pakistan agrees to withdraw from Kashmir before a plebiscite may be held. Therefore it may appear that Pakistan has to vacate its occupation of the state of Jammu and Kashmir and has no claim to the Siachen Glacier. 

The Simla Agreement states that “Pending the final settlement of any of the problems between the two countries, neither side shall unilaterally alter the situation and both shall prevent the organization, assistance or encouragement of any acts detrimental to the maintenance of peaceful and harmonious relations.” India would be a violator since it unilaterally deployed its troops on the Siachen Glacier in April 1984 in contradiction to this agreement. 

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References:

[1] The Simla Agreement, (Accessed October 28, 2015), available from http://www.operationspaix.net/DATA/DOCUMENT/6771~v~Agreement_Between_the_Government_of_India_and_the_Government_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Pakistan_on_Bilateral_Relations__Simla_Agreement_.pdf.

[2] Dr. Ishtiaq Ahmad Siachen, “A By-Product of the Kashmir Dispute and a Catalyst for its Resolution,” Pakistan Journal of History & Culture, Vol.XXVII/2, 2006.

[3] Raspal S. Khosa, The Siachen Glacier dispute: Imbroglio on the roof of the world, Contemporary South Asia, 8:2, 1999, 187-209.

[4] Gulshan Majeed, South Asian Security Compulsions: A Historical Analysis of India-Pakistan Relations, Journal of Political Studies, Vol. 20, Issue - 2, 2013, 219:232

[5] Resolution adopted by the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan on 5 January 1949 (Accessed October 28, 2015), available from http://www.claudearpi.net/maintenance/uploaded_pics/19490105ResolutionforCeasefire.pdf.

[6] Siachen: A By-Product of the Kashmir Dispute and a Catalyst for its Resolution fight (Accessed October 23, 2015), available from http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/latest_english_journal/siachen_a_bi-product_of_kashmir_dr_ishtiaq.pdf .

[7] Ashraf, Sajjad. "India-Pakistan Relations: Common Ground and Points of Discord." ECSSR (Abu Dhabi).Emirates Lecture Series.88, 2011: 0_1,1,35,37-58.

[8] “Demilitarization of the Siachen Conflict Zone: Concepts for Implementation and Monitoring”, Sandia Report SAND2007-5670, (September 2007): 19.

[9] Is there any hope for India and Pakistan? (accessed on 28 October 2015), available from http://foreignpolicy.com/2014/09/02/is-there-any-hope-for-india-pakistan-relations/

[10]Sumona Dasgupta, “ Kashmir and the India Pakistan Dialogue process”, RSIS working paper No 29 (21 May 2015): 11.

[11] Resolution adopted by the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan on 13 August 1948 (Accessed October 28, 2015), available from https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/uncom1.htm.

[12] Resolution adopted by the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan on 5 January 1949.

[13]Ravi Baghel, Marcus Nüsser, “Securing the heights: The vertical dimension of the Siachen conflict between India and Pakistan in the Eastern Karakoram,” Political Geography, Volume 48, September 2015, Pages 24-36

[14] Siachen dispute: India and Pakistan’s glacial fight (Accessed October 23, 2015), available from http://defence.pk/threads/siachen-dispute-india-and-pakistan%E2%80%99s-glacial-fight.309100/

Siachen Story Part 3 - Life at 20,500 Feet

    Also read: Siachen Story Part 2 - Deployment

    We stayed holed up in that bunker till about 6:30 pm, when it become dark and the shelling stopped. My first exposure to being under fire was for almost ten hours. I met the officer and his men who were in the OP bunker - all grinning from ear to ear on seeing their 'reliever', and were they relieved! Next few hours were spent trying to understand the layout of the post, all of 20 x 20 metres on a saddle formed between two peaks. I also had to understand the lay of the ground, enemy positions, gun locations and understand the map well. All at night.

       

     I was to live in an ice bunker or 'cave', 8ft x 10ft along with my OP team and a nursing assistant who had already spent some time on the post. Since the bunker was barely 4 feet high, we had to crawl in through a tunnel that was curved to keep out splinters and the snow, and I realized that the roof was supported by  the tail frame of a Cheetah helicopter! And the only officer in the bunker had the privilege of keeping his personal stuff on  the shelves patched up within the frame. We had central heating - four perpetually burning stoves kept in the centre of the bunker, belonging to each man, and individual lighting - those bulbs that we'd carried along from our unit. The interior was soot blackened because of the stoves and dark in spite of the small bulbs that were on throughout the day. One corner was dedicated to our food stores: cartons of condensed milk, nuts and chocolates, packaged juices, and a whole lot more. In fact, this was what Siachen was famous for - the unending supplies of expensive and high quality packaged food that was way beyond the reach of most soldiers and officers outside of Siachen. The stoves were used for heating as well as cooking. Thanks to kerosene, which does  not freeze even at -50C! Every trip in the open or in the OP bunker for observation duties was followed by hot water treatment - essentially putting your hands and feet in a container full of hot water to thaw them out. Since there were no buckets on the post, jerry cans cut along the cross section made a perfect flat water container.
 
    The next morning, I got into the daily routine of getting up at at least 0530 hours to crap. Reasons: you had to drop it in the open, so dark was prefered (no drainage or plumbing is possible in -50C, on top of which regular shelling destroys everything that's not inside a bunker), and you had to do it before the enemy started shelling after first light. The first day was very embarrassing - you had to sit in the open flanked by soldiers amidst small piles of shit that had frozen and could not be removed or buried. Thankfully, I didn't have to expose my 'officer-like' ass to the men - only because our clothes had a strategically located zipper system that allowed us to unzip, drop our load, wash and zip up before you could say 'Jack Robinson"! On heading back to my bunker, I saw the Nursing Assistant holding an intact mortar bomb and gleefully shouting "this will make a good souvenir". We had a tough time convincing him to throw it and hoped it wouldn't blow up in the process. Unexploded ordnance is very dangerous and can blow up even if its just touched!

     My team landed up over the next two days, amidst long shelling sessions. We got down to improving the OP bunker, essentially rebuilding it at night. During the process of digging up snow to fill the sand bags, we discovered a sack full of AK47 ammunition, which we used over the next few days for target practice on the condensed milk tins lying around the bunkers. Food was essentially some noodles in the morning, canned juice, nuts, tea and chocolates throughout the day and we would make some regular 'dinner' at night. There was chicken and tinned fish lying around in sacks that no one seemed interested in eating.  This was attributable purely to superstition that 'OP Baba' would get angry if someone on a post ate meat (this was extended to even chocolate, on some posts!). A few days on, decided that I would not go along with this and asked my men to prepare chicken for lunch for me. Initially, they refused to eat it themselves, but after a few days, the need for protein overcame their superstition; chicken and fish became a daily affair in our bunker. The infantry soldiers were a bit more conservative and they refused to eat it, as did the captain who was the post commander. They did tell me that I was testing the OP Baba's patience and some great misfortune would befall me, but here I am, twenty years later. So much for OP Baba! I think this was a very convenient belief for those who were in the  racket of siphoning off the expensive rations to be sold in the black market in Chandigarh. Only issue with fish was that most of the time it gave us the loosies and our only worry was using the (non existent) toilet during shelling. And chicken needed 25 'whistles' and two hours in the pressure cooker!

     Incessant shelling was a regular feature on most days. Bombs falling around you every day makes you immune to the shock and noise after some time. We actually learnt to sleep through shelling in the afternoon, for want of anything better to do. Sometimes, the stoves would go off because of the shock from an explosion and one of us had to get up and relight them. During our time at 'Amar', almost 60 days, no one got hurt. The most dangerous time was dusk, when shelling would stop (probably because of the enemy's 'Namaz' timings) and everyone would be eager to get out of the bunkers. The Pakistanis would fire a few parting shorts after a gap to catch the people outside, but fortunately, no one got hurt. So we made it a point to go out only after waiting for some time.

    Our only contact with the world was the trusted ANPRC radio set. However, because of reduced ranges due to terrain screening, secrecy devices were not used. The radio operators created their own codes for daily chatter. South Indian troops were sought after as they were not understood by the enemy. There was, of course BBC and All India Radio to entertain us. Once in a while the helicopter would bring us mail which was sought after by the soldiers waiting for some news from their families. There was no leave during the six month tenure on the post, simply because of the time and effort required to reach the forward line. So everyone would be waiting eagerly for their time to come to an end.

    I don't want to give away the secrets of artillery fire control at these heights. For those who understand, distance from gun to target, 15,000 m; OP to target 1200-1600 m; and target height 6100 m ASL. Gunners around the world will understand the difficulty of hitting such a target, thanks to effect of slope and meteorology in mountains! I was a newly promoted Captain and had not yet done my fire control course. But later, I realized  some 'moves' that I improvised were part of standard procedure.
 
    At this height, normal blood pressure of  human being is 160 / 110 and our nursing assistant would check it every week. Walking even 5 metres was tiring and we would be breathless, especially when it was windy. Things were worse on a bad weather day - clouds, snow fall and extreme winds brought down temperatures to -50C. Just getting out of the bunker would be a difficult task. The good part: there was generally no shelling on such days, and there were no 'link patrols' on this post. It simply wasn't linked to any other place on Earth!

    Superstition was widespread among troops on the post. A day after we repaired our OP bunker, it was sprayed with medium machine gun fire and there were prominent pock marks all over the sand bags(these were white to merge with the snow). Obviously, the enemy was keeping an eye on us. A couple of infantry soldiers who were on duty at that time said that it was because we were eating meat. They tried to dissuade us from eating meat in future. To keep 'OP Baba' happy, no doubt! Firing and artillery duels were relatively less frequent in winter due to the cold. In spite of that, it was always 'hot' on Amar, and that's why it was notorious, especially because of the large number of artillery OP officers who'd bought it while on Amar. 

    I wrote to my CO, back in my own unit a couple of times. He promptly sent  copies of my letters to the brigade and divisional commanders. Sure enough, I got letters from them within a month. The brigade commander's letter was nothing interesting, but the General's letter was a morale booster and really well thought out. That's when I really understood how a small interaction with leadership can motivate juniors.

   Some 40 days down the line, we got a message that our relief team had started from base camp. Amar OP had normal tenures of 45 days only, due to extremes of height, cold, and hostility. They would, of course take almost two weeks and some days to reach us. We started looking forward to being 'relieved'. We kept track of their progress on a daily basis and talked to the transit posts en-route to make sure they were moving up. They reached the Bila helipad after ten odd days. Now I was  fairly certain that the officer would be up in three to four days. But it was not to be - we got news that he had been flown out to Srinagar!  It turned out that this officer had been aide de camp to a General, who'd recently taken over command of the Corps in Srinagar. And he wanted to meet his old ADC. So out he flew, although he was back in a couple of days. It seems they didn't want to waste his acclimatisation cycle....

    It was a happy day when our relievers, led by an officer who was senior to me, landed. Three days later, we were back in the Bila helipad. That's where we got our next piece of 'good' news. I was to be airlifted to Aman OP(19000+ feet) in the Southern Glacier area. The OP officer there had to be evacuated as he had frostbite, and the post was required to be manned by an officer immediately. This meant that I would be airlifted from here to base camp, then to Thoise, and then yet again to the helipad nearest to Aman post from where I would walk up. My team was also promised a lift, but that's not the way Indian Army works! We were yet to see the reality... 

    I was dropped at Base Camp the next day at around 12:30 PM. I threw the 2 odd sets of undergarments that I'd worn over the past two months, got a haircut, shave and bath. It was great feeling like a shorn chicken after a long time. A quick lunch, and the discovery that the roll of film that I'd sent over earlier from the post for developing was lost! That sorted out all photos that I'd clicked on Amar! To make matters worse, my camera was acting weird, switching on every once in a while- I guess Siachen has its effects on electronics as well! I was on the MI-17 headed for Thoise at 4 PM. The pilot was my Air Force course mate from NDA, who suggested that I stay on the air base itself for the night, as I had to catch a Cheetah sortie next morning to Southern Glacier.
    
    
 
     

The Story of My Family

This post is an abridged version from http://chakkamvelilkudumbam.org/, which is my family's website. Some grammatical errors have been corrected, and explanations added at a few places... and there are gaps that need to be filled..

All malayalam words are in italics. If you're not from Kerala, don't even try to understand what these words mean! They're mostly names of people or places, by the way.

Many of my ancestors were warriors and fought for their king as a clan. So I guess I kept that tradition alive! 
I'm including this post so that my daughter can read and understand this half of her family.

A Preface to the history of Chakkamvelil Family

In the Holy Bible, the New Testament commences with the genealogy from Abraham to Jesus Christ. Among the people of the Middle East including Jews, the influence of clans and races has always been very powerful. But this was not the case in India. Because of this, there are limited details available to us from government records and from the history of Malankara Church before the advent of the westerners.

The practice of keeping notes and diaries, and collecting records that are of historical value which would be of help in writing family history was rare in our communities. At a time when the use of paper was not common, the system of keeping records and deeds inscribed in palm leaves existed in ancient tharavadu(clans / families) but such records could not outlive time and they have all vanished. It is from invaluable family legends which are passed on from generation to generation through oral and written tradition that the ancient history of many families are reconstructed.But the case of Melukara Chakkamvelil family, there are concrete records which point to the fact that Chakkamvelil Tharakans belong to a great Nazrani family that came and settled in Melukara (Kozhencherry)

From the old records of St. Thomas Mar Thoma Church, Kozhencherry, one of the ancient Churches in Malankara, this can be gathered. There are reference to Chakkamvelil Tharakans of Melukara in the Adamanakaranam chapters of  Pandalam Royal Palace. In the Travancore State Manual and in the chain of legends about Sabarimala too, references to Chakkamvelil Tharakans can be seen. Further references occur in Sabha Tharaka (Makaram 1083, P.141), Biography of Ayroor Achen (p.221) and the Souvenir publication of St. George Orthodox Church (1991). In the family history of Ayroor Ayyakavil it is stated:  In the early days there were no Christians in Melukara other than the members of Chakkamvelil family.

For more than about 500 years, the members of the family who lived in Melukara and Kozhencherry migrated to the different parts of Kerala and later to the different parts of the world. They lived in harmony with one another and used all opportunities to renew and strengthen the bond that existed among them through visits and correspondence. So in those days no need was felt to write a family history.

Under the influence of western culture and with the spread of English education in the 19th and 20th centuries, the Christian communities experienced a powerful renaissance. This influenced the renewal of family relationships. But in the wake of 1st World War the educated youngsters of the families migrated to the different states of India and to countries like Ceylon, Malaya and Singapore.

Those were days when facilities for travelling and communication were scarce, which made it difficult for them to live in close contact with their families. With the outbreak of the 2nd  World War, they scattered to different countries. As time passed and life went on without any mutual contact among members, the elders of family felt the need to search for the details of family members, to organize family gatherings and also to compile a history of the family.

The Purpose of Writing the Family History

This book is meant exclusively for the members of the Chakkamvelil family, so that they can understand the history of their family. For an interesting reading, it was necessary to include some incidents from history and their background. The editorial board has been very particular not to include anything unreal or exaggerated in this narration and care has been taken to give a truthful presentation of the past.

St. Thomas in Kerala

According to the history, St. Thomas, one of the 12 Apostles of Jesus Christ, along with the Jewish businessman Haban landed in Kodungallur harbour in A.D 52. At present this place is known as Chavakadu and is situated in the district of Thrissur.

There are records which indicate that during the reign of Tiberius Caesar following a battle that broke out in Palastine, some Jews migrated to Kerala. There are people who hold the view that even the visit of St.Thomas to Kerala was in search of the Jews who had settled here. St. Thomas who landed in Kodungallur harbour, spoke the gospel first to the Jews who were living in and around Kodungallur and then to the caste Hindus following the apostolic convention. The people, who were impressed by the exhortation and miracles of the divine personality, accepted Christianity. They were members of four reputed Brahmin families, Kalli, Kaliyankal, Pakalomattom and Sankarapuri. When it was known that they had embraced Christianity, other Namboothiri families found it disagreeable and they excommunicated the four families. The newly converted Christian Namboothiris who were originally priests in the Hindu temple started to conduct the Christian form of worship in the temple and later this temple was used as a church.

The Migration of Christians to South Kerala

As a result of the missionary work by St. Thomas in Palayur, a trade centre and the centre of Brahmins, a large number of Malayali Brahmins embraced Christianity. But there were some Brahmins who were adamant about their religion. It is said that they cursed the place and that the place came to be known as the Sapakad (Cursed land), which is the present Chavakad.

But for different reasons it became necessary for Christians to move from Palayur and nearby places to the southern regions. In the book, Mar Thoma Christians by Bernad Thoma Kathanar (pub.1916), it is written that the people migrated from early Christian centres like Kodungallur and Palayur and settled in Kaduthuruthi, Aruvithara and Kuravilangad and that they established churches in these places. Among these people there were members of noted families like Kalli, Kaliyangal, Sankarapuri and Pakalomattom.

The first branch of Kalli, (Palli) family, Panamkuzhakal was formed and other branches also originated subsequently. With the passing of decades, the descendants of this family settled in different parts of Kerala. In the olden days the great Nazranis were well versed in archery and trading. Even the priestly class was proficient in martial arts and they used to provide training to youngsters. Some of the priests were experts in ancient medical systems and they used to treat people free of cost. There are many references to Panamkuzhakal Achens in this respect in history books.

Nilakkal Chayal Church

St. Thomas established seven Churches in Kerala in Palayur, Kodungallur, Kottakkavu, Kokkamangalam, Kollam, Niranam and Nilakkal. All these places were great centres of trade in those days. Nilakkal continued to be an ancient Christian Centre and also a trade centre till the 14th century. But the Chera-Chola wars that lasted for more than 110 years, the constant attacks of enemies and the threat caused by the maravar thugs led by Fakhrudin and Poligar caused the decay of Nilakkal. At a time when the existence of the church was under threat, for performing priestly services and protecting the church, a group of Christians soldiers under the leadership of a priest who belonged to the Kuravilangad Panamkuzhakal branch went to Nilakkal and lived there. For a long time the Church continued to exist because of their vigilance. But the frequent and unexpected attacks of wild animals and the plundering raids of marauders resulted in the destruction of the church and the flight of the people. These people fled to neighbouring places like Kanjirappally, Aruvithara, Ranny, Chengannur, Koyipuram, Mallappally, Kodasanadu, Kozhencherry and Kadambanad. But the priest who belonged to Panamkuzhakkal branch returned home to Kuravilangadu with his family.

The Karthas of Ranni

The Nilakkal region, situated 36 miles south west of Ranny was under the nominal over lordship of the ruler of Kayamkulam. Ranny and the places nearby were under the over lordship of the King of Pandalam. This wild forest region was also inhabited by robbers and thugs. The King of Pandalam often sent his soldiers to drive away the robbers.

But the attack from Pandyadesham were constant and the king realized that sending soldiers from time to time would not be sufficient to exterminate such violent criminals. So he brought some warriors and skilful archers from Pandyadesam to Ranni and made them live there. These men effectively suppressed the thugs. The King of Pandalam gave the descendants of these brave defenders the guardianship and responsibility over Ranni. The origin of Ranni Karthas who became famous as administrators in later years happened in this manner. There was a time when they ruled over Kozhencherry.

Ayroor Kovilans

Parusurama had given the right to look after and administer the temple to a group of people named Kovilans. These satellite Kshatriyas had their own provincial dominance in many places within the boundaries of the Thekkumkoor province. Some of them lived on the river banks of Ayroor-Cherukolpuzha. At a period in history the rulers of Pandalam entrusted them with the administrative responsibility of this region.

 A glimpse of Kerala in those days

The term Keralam was given to the state on the 1st of November 1956 with the birth of the state. Kerala was formed by the unification of the Travancore, Cochin states and Malabar. Before the Travancore and Cochin states were fully established, there had established a number of small states like Venad, Ilayadathu Swaroopam Desinganad, Kayamkulam, Chempakassery, Thekkumkoor, Vadakkumkoor, Kochi, Kozhikode and Kolathunadu etc. and each native state was ruled over by a king. Kozhencherry and nearby places were under the rule of Thekumkoor king. His territory spread from mount Illickal which is located east of Sabarimala to the lake Vembanad on the west and from Kaipattoor  Kadavu in the south to Kanarikkunnu in the north. Though the reigning capital of the Thekkumkoor kingdom was Changanassery, the administrative responsibility vested with the King of Pandalam. But the king entrusted taxation and law and order responsibilities with the Ezhumattoor Thampurans. Eventually, the powers of the Thampurans waned and the law order situation and the collection of taxes were in a state of chaos.

Traditional beliefs about the roots of Chakkamvelil family

The king of Thekkumkoor came to know about the Nazrani warriors from the Kovilans and from Vadakkamkoor. He authorized a group including the Kovilans to bring some Christian families from Kuravilangad for defending the country and also for establishing centres of trade. Since the great Nazranis were very proficient in the field of trade and also the art of fighting, the rulers encouraged Nazrani settlements. Not only the King of Thekkumkoor, but the rulers of other states were also interested in inviting Nazranis to their provinces. Both the Vadakkumkoor and Thekkumkoor states were on friendly terms with each other. It was in such a situation that in response to written invitation sent from the Thumkoor King, through messengers that Christian families, which included the Panamughal branch at Kuravilangad with the warrior brothers Mathu and Potha and their arms bearers set out  along with the Kovilans. When they reached the border of Thekkumkoor, they had an audience with the Thekkumkoor king. Impressed by their physical stature and skills in warrior-ship, the king decided to appoint Mathu, the elder brother as his own personal aide. He asked Mathu to remain there and permitted the rest to proceed on their way. But Mathu assured the king that he would return to Changanassery after accompanying his brother and the rest of the group to ensure that they would get proper accommodation and living conditions. The king accepted this arrangement and let him go with his people.

In accordance with the wishes of the rulers of Pandalam and Thekkumkoor, the people accompanying Mathu found proper accommodation in different places from Ezhumattoor to Kozhencherry. After that, Mathu, his brother Potha, with their families and their arms, bearers arrived at the area controlled by the Ayroor Kovilans.

Chakkamvelil family at Melukara

The Kovilans gave them land at Ayroor, But later as suggested by the Pandalam king, they were given the land on the shore of the river Pampa, stretching from the Parackal plot owned by Chempakassery madom to the Chakkamvelil plot. The land was given tax free to them and they were given all the rights and facilities which were given exclusively to the nobility by the king's orders. In these days only upper caste people were given the privilege to live on the banks of rivers. For the first time a Nazrani family was settling on the river banks in Melukara. The people of the locality welcomed this whole heartedly. The ones who came from Kuravilangad as arms bearers also settled close to them.

In those days, east of the Kozhencherry market, now known as Karippathanath ferry was a great centre of trade and commerce. This was the only big market between Kozhencherry and Ranni. This place, located on land across the sandy banks of the river where the Cherukolpuzha Hindu religious convention is held now was known as Puthenpeedika. At a time when there were no roads or motor vehicles, hill products from the eastern sector like Pala and Kanjirappalli were transported along the river Pampa in boats. In addition to commercial boats, there were also boats for travelling. so one could always see a line of boats moving along the Pampa. Spies and enemies too came by boats frequently. The boats that aroused suspicion were checked thoroughly and a sum of money was exacted from them as tax.

Though the administrative responsibility was given to the Kovilans of Ayroor, the Karthas of Ranni would intervene every now and then. This area, which stretched to the east through the Pamba till Puthiacavu and Kuriannoor in the west was a check post. As brothers Mathu and Potha were given the responsibility first, they got the chance to send products to Changanassery, Purakkad, Kayamkulam and other places, to expand business. This led them to acquire properties and become immensely wealthy.

As had been directed by the native king at Changanassery, Mathu left all the properties and responsibilities with his brother and returned to Changanassery with his family. Later he was appointed the advisor in matters of trade to the king of Thekkumkoor. He settled at Kallarackal later. Even to this day, his descendants continue to live at Changanassery.

The First Church at Kozhencherry

In those days the people living in Ayroor included Christians who came from Korakeni, Kollam. These people along with Christians who lived at Mavelikara and Kozhencherry built a Church at the Vennipra hill on the banks of paddy fields behind the present Kozhencherry church and worship was held there. It is supposed that this was around 1599 AD. 

Taxation Responsibilities

The responsibility of keeping law and order and as well as taxation in Melukara and the territory from Kozhencherry to Kaipattoor was vested in the Ezhumattoor Thampurans. But as their descendants increased in strength, the king of Pandalam removed them from their position and their power was given over to the Ayroor Kovilans who belonged to the Kshatriya caste. The Kovilans thus came to wield the power over life and death and the right to imprison criminals. But the Kovilans found it difficulty to carry out the job all by themselves, especially in the paddy fields of Mezhuveli and Puloor. Certain settlers who were not submissive were not ready to give the share which was considered due to the kings. The settlers in these fields would torture and even murder the officers of the Pandalam king who went to exact the paddy. They would not let the fields be entrusted to other settlers either. Thekkumkoor Maharaja learnt from Kallarackal Mathu that Potha, his younger brother was capable of suppressing these criminals. On his advice the King of Pandalam ordered that Potha, who lived at Parackal may be given charge of law and order and taxation responsibilities which had been held by the Ayroor Kovilans in places like Ayroor, Melukara, Kozhencherry and Kaippattoor.

Potha and his men bravely confronted the criminals and set the scene for palace officials to exact all the arrears due to the king. With this, the law and order situation improved and there was no longer any difficulty in collecting taxes.

This won the acclaim of the native chiefs, the king of Pandalam and the Thekkumkoor king. The king of Thekkumkoor honoured Potha with the title Tharakan and awarded him a sword, shield and waist band. Some properties were also given to him as reward. These family heirlooms were kept secure in the Chakkamvelil Tharavadu, but were either lost or moved from there in the flood of Malayalam Era 1057 Edavom. In that flood many houses on the banks of the river Pamba were swept away, although the sword and shield were still kept in Kurumthottickal  house.

As suggested by the king, Mathu Tharakan had entrusted all his properties and assets to Pothu Tharakan and left, but the latter was inclined to live in Parackal. It was through this place that the sacred procession of Aranmula Partha Sarathy Temple passed and it was also close to the river. But this was a place which would get flooded from time to time. Another disadvantage was that in the summer season wild elephants and other animals used to come to the Parackal ferry for drinking water. On top of all this, a child of the family was trampled to death by an elephant. This led to family moving from Parackal to the Chakkamvelil plot, which was at a higher level. After this he came to be known as Parackal Tharakan and later as Chakkamvelil Tharakan. At present a different family lives there with the name Parackal.

More Christian families move to Kozhencherry

The king of Thekkumkoor, being convinced of the sincerity and industriousness of the Christians, decided to bring more Christians to his country. He authorized Kallarackal Mathu Tharakan who was his caretaker and later the chief of his army for this purpose. Accordingly along with his younger brother Potha Tharakan Chakkamvelil and some helpers, he fetched some more people belonging to Palliveettil Kuravilangad who were warriors with a strong physique. These men were given proper accommodation in Kozhencherry and the nearby places and they were entrusted with the duties of keeping law and order and collecting taxes.

It was in those days that the thatched chapel at Vennipra hill, Keezhukara was set on fire and destroyed by the Ayroor Kovilans. In the absence of a Church close by, the Christians who lived in Ayroor and the suburbs had to depend on the Churches at Maramon, Chengannor and Niranam for worship and rituals like christening and marriage. In the absence of facility of transportation along land, people had to resort to transportaion by water. The difficulty experienced by women while boarding and alighting from the boats and often their white clothes would get spoilt by the mud and dirty water. This was brought to the attention of Tharakan by his wife. Tharakan felt the need for a Church in Kozhencherry. He met some of the important persons of his time and together they discussed this issue. In the light of their discussions they decided to send a group of men to meet the king of Thekkumkoor and intimate him of their need.

The Delegates meet the King

It was in those days that the thatched chapel at Vennipra hill, Keezhukara was set on fire and destroyed by the Ayroor Kovilans. In the absence of a Church close by, the Christians who lived in Ayroor and the suburbs had to depend on the Churches at Maramon, Chengannor and Niranam for worship and rituals like christening and marriage. In the absence of facility of transportation along land, people had to resort to transportaion by water. The difficulty experienced by women while boarding and alighting from the boats and often their white clothes would get spoilt by the mud and dirty water. This was brought to the attention of Tharakan by his wife. Tharakan felt the need for a Church in Kozhencherry. He met some of the important persons of his time and together they discussed this issue. In the light of their discussions they decided to send a group of men to meet the king of Thekkumkoor and intimate him of their need.

Parackal ( Chakkamvelil) Tharakan, who was close to the King of Pandalam, the newly appointed military chief Mathu Tharakan and also the Kovilans of Ayroor, was authorized to carry out this task. The other delegates who were meeting the king were heads of four prominent families- Thevervelil valiaveedu from Kozhencherry, Theverthundiyil from Vanchithara, Venmany from Mallapuzhasseri and Parackal Chakkamvelil from Melukara. 

These family heads, in the presence of the king's military chief Kallarackal Mathu Tharakan met the king. After making the traditional offerings and obeisance they informed the king about their grievance. The magnanimous king arranged a compromise between the Kovilans and the Christians. He also gave the land where the old Church at Kozhencherry now stands, and which had been owned by Chengazhassery Illom to the Christians without any tax liability towards the king. Later, a Church was built here in the name of Virgin Mary. For immediate use a thatched chapel was built in the place where the cemetery near the old church stands. It was in 1774 AD (Malayalam era 950) that the old Church as we see today was built in the Persian style. At that time, the portico had not been constructed.

The Portico of the old church

The place where the Kozhencherry church stands today was once owned by the Chakkamvelil family. There was a rest house that belonged to the family. Since there was a threat of enemy attacks, all the six sons of the third son of Chakkamvelil Tharakan were made to live in this rest house. This was extended for the protection of the church. In the absence of another rest house, a portico for the Church was constructed. In the early days, only the elders of the Chakkamvelil family and their friends used this portico.

The plot was later inherited by the Mannureth branch. This plot is referred to as Mannureth Chakkamvelil plot in the old government records. The well used by the Mannureth family in the past is the one seen in the Churchyard even today. This plot was handed over to Mulamoottil Idikkula and later it was given to the church according to the old records of Kozhencherry Church. The old Mannureth family still survives in Kozhencherry and other places under the names Kulathinal, Korkat, Illathu Prambil, Kizhakke Prambil, Mannureth and Cheenkapurathu.

In the past prominent families who were associated with the construction of Churches were given Kaisthana privileges (connected with the administration of the church). Just as the local bodies connected with the temples had some administrative powers in the locality, in Churches, Kaisthanis weilded extensive authority, according to history books. The executive body of the Church had a say even in matters connected with the selection of episcopates.
From the days of the establishment of St.Thomas Mar Thoma Church at Kozhencherry, Chakkamvelil family was a Kaisthani family. In a biography of K.N. Daniel published by Rev. P.I.Mathai titled Aatmavrta Kathanam, it is said that the Chakkamvelil Tharakans who lived at Parackal had the Kaisthani privilege in the Kozhencherry Church. On the expiry of Cherian Tharakan, this place was inherited by his eldest son Koruthu Tharakan. Until the democratic system of election came into being, this practice continued and the first branch of the Chakkamvelil family, Kurumthottickal family continued to enjoy this right.

Under the initiative taken by Vicar General Kovoor Achen an agreement was registered in the Kozhencherry Church in Dhanu 22 Malayalam era 1068, according to which the system of permanent position in the Kaishtana body came into an end. 

"The families of Melukara Kurumthottickal Mathu Cherian and Mallapuzhasseri Venmony Varkey Markose,  in spite of being Kaisthana families ---- are not to consider the key of the Melpoottu entrusted with them as part of their Kaisthanam and are to return it when they are asked to do so."

At the end of the legal case that originated following Malankara Naveekaranam the Mar Thoma Church had to surrender all its possessions other than the Churches at Kozhencherry, Maramon and Kottarakkara. It was Kurumthottickal Tharakan, the grandson of Chakkamvelil Tharakan who sowed the seeds of Naveekaranam in the Kozhencherry Church, which is one of the most prominent churches in Malankara, remarkable for its ancestry and also the number of families belonging to it.

Melukara and Cherukolpuzha, where History Sleeps

At the time when our ancestor Chakkamvelil Pothen Tharakan and family were living in the Parackal plot in Melukara, the course of the river was not the same as it is today. A branch of the Pamba between the aqueduct at the Vazhakkunnam and Cherukolpuzha deviated to the north making the present day paddy fields in Ayroor a vast watershed on its way to Kuriannoor. The term Cherukolpuzha originated in this manner. Half of the sandy banks where Cherukolpuzha Viswa Hindu Religious Convention is held now then lay on a high plane as part of Ayroor. This river bank is the place that Ayroor Kovilans lived. On the banks just opposite this Chakkamvelil Tharakan and family lived. (Melukara Parackal)

The market here, known as Melukara  Puthenpeedika, was a  trade centre of hill products, Certain parts of these shops, which were two-storeyed wooden buildings could be seen until 50 years ago. It was from here theat hill products brought from Pala and Kanjirappally were sent places like Purakad and Kollam, The market which existed at Kozhencherry in those days was in the place including Pullleli ground which is situated between St Thomas High School and Idathil School. When the British administrator Bellard opened the market (now called Bellard Market)  near the bridge at Kozhencherry, it was convenient to load the goods in the boats. From then on the old trade center came to be known as Pazhaya Theruvu. With this the importance of Puthen Peedika at Melukara declined and it gradually ceased to exist. Later it was even totally wiped out of the pages of history.

When Maharaja Marthanda Varma, the ruler of Venad attacked Kayamkulam in AD-1734 and 1746, the ruler of Kayamkulam requested the ruler of Pandalam to join him and fight against Marthanda Varma. The latter refused to do so but was willing to pay tribute to Marthanda Varma instead. In 1749, the army of Marthanda Varma and the army of Thekkumkoor clashed at Aranmula and a fierce battle followed. In the battle all the Christian soldiers at Kozhencherry joined and fought against the invader fiercely. But the Thekkumkoor army had to suffer defeat before the army led by Ramaihan Dalawa, the army chief of Marthanda Varma. It is believed that Ramaihan Dalawa even advanced up to Ayroor, the homeland of Kovilans who were in charge of the interim government. He is believed to have demolished the Kovilakom and other places. The king of Thekkumkoor sought refuge in the kingdom of Vadakkumkoor. The ruler of Pandalam, who had borrowed money to meet his share of the expenses of the war found it difficult to even pay the interest. Therefore he borrowed money from many individuals, pledging land and fields so that he could repay the loan. 

The first four branches of the original Chakkamvelil family

• Kurumthottickal

• Parolil

• Mannurethu

• Chakkamvelil